Paulo Nunes, Carlos Bacha (p)

Krzysztof Janc

Brazil´s agribusiness sector has increased during the last 24 years, mainly based on exports of agricultural and agro-industrial products. However, it has also imported industrial inputs, such as fertilizer and machinery. In this context, the objective of this article is to analyze, using input-output matrices, the evolution of linkage indices (both forward and backward) and multipliers (for output, income, and employment) of agriculture and agro-based industries in Brazil, considering the years 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015. These four years allow for the aggregation of input-output matrices, developed by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, into 40 sectors and the decomposition of agriculture into three segments: crop production, livestock, and forestry. Agro-based industry (also known as agro-food industries or just agro-industries) is broken down into 12 segments. It is observed that, between the years 2000 and 2015, the forward linkage indices of agriculture sector, considering its all three segments together, on average, fell by 27% (indicating its decreasing importance in fostering agro-based industries, trade, and other economic activities within the country), while its backward linkage indices increased by 42% (noting that agriculture had purchased more industrial inputs, but a significant share of them are imported). The opposite trend has taken place for the aggregated 12 agro-based industries, whose forward linkage index increased, on average, by 18%, while the backward linkage index decreased, on average, by 12% (between 2000 and 2015). For both agriculture and agro-industry sectors, the output, employment, and income multipliers have declined from 2000 to 2015, however in 2015 they were higher for agro-industry sector rather than for agriculture sector, on average. The strong mechanization of agriculture during the first quarter of the 21st century had led to reduce its employment multiplier, on average, by 75% between 2000 and 2015. These aggregated results, however, conceal differences in the behavior of the aforementioned indicators among the three agricultural segments and the 12 agro-industrial segments analyzed in the paper. It highlights the importance of considering specific characteristics within the sectors that make up important shares of the Brazilian agribusiness, particularly within its agriculture and agro-industry sectors when designing policies and programs aimed at ensuring their growths. Especially keeping in mind, there are boom phases followed by downturns in agricultural and agro-industrial commodity prices, which strongly dictate the domestic dynamism of agribusiness, responsible for ¼ of the Brazilian GDP in average during the years 2021 to 2023.

Krzysztof Janc (p)

Nur Kardelen Öztürk

Rural areas worldwide are increasingly affected by unfavorable development trends, often described as 'rural decline' or 'rural crisis.' These terms highlight the multifaceted, long-term challenges facing rural areas, amplified by the exodus of young people and changes in rural economies, resulting in ongoing social and economic transformations. Discussions of rural development emphasize the interdependence between rural and urban areas, which influence each other. Rural areas are often compared with urban areas, highlighting differences such as lower levels of development, limited access to resources, and slower growth.
In this context, the concept of 'spatial justice' is gaining attention, focusing on the fair distribution of resources and opportunities. A key aspect is the right of individuals to access, inhabit, and shape space, laying the foundations for a more equitable future. 'Rural spatial justice' aims to empower rural communities to shape their own futures, addressing inequalities and promoting local participation and governance. Digital technologies enhance engagement and should be prioritized in efforts to achieve spatial justice, ensuring equitable distribution of capabilities and opportunities across geographical areas.
The aim of this paper is to examine the role and significance of digital technologies in the functioning of rural institutions and communities. We seek answers to the research question based on the analysis of survey results conducted among representatives of institutions influencing rural development, as well as among rural residents.
It is particularly important to note how digital technologies are perceived as a factor in reducing the development gap between urban and rural areas. Most surveyed institutions believe that digital technologies have played a significant role in narrowing this gap in recent years. They highlighted notable progress in areas such as the accessibility of public services, residents' use of the internet for information retrieval, and the enhancement of residents' skills and competencies.
Similarly, responses from rural residents indicated a positive view, although they were more critical regarding the scale of improvements in various aspects of their functioning. Importantly, from the perspective of the study's objective, they rated access to services much lower than institutions did.

This research was funded by National Science Centre, Poland. Grant number 2020/39/B/HS4/00423.

Nur Kardelen Öztürk (p)

Rodrigo Silva

This study critically analyzes the transformation of ownership structures and management regimes governing treasury-owned agricultural lands in Turkey, with a focus on the socio-economic and sectoral implications of legislative reforms enacted between 1995 and 2012. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research synthesizes longitudinal data from the General Directorate of National Real Estate (2005–2021) and legal-textual analysis to evaluate how laws No. 4070 (1995), 4706 (2001), and 6292 (2012) reconfigured property rights, prioritizing fiscal revenue generation over welfare-oriented land distribution. Empirical findings reveal a paradoxical trend: while the aggregate area of treasury-owned agricultural lands fluctuated—peaking at 21.17 billion m² in 2013—their proportional share within total treasury assets diminished significantly, declining from 45% to 35% in unit count and 13% to 6% in areal coverage by 2021. Post-2016, under Law No. 6292, privatization accelerated, yielding record sales revenues of 271 million TL by 2021. However, this surge coincided with a contraction in agricultural output (14% decline, 2014–2021) and a reduction in registered farmers, underscoring systemic inefficiencies in linking land tenure reforms to sectoral productivity.

Thematic analysis highlights three critical outcomes: (1) Escalating land valuations post-2007 disproportionately excluded smallholders from acquisition processes, fostering non-agricultural land conversions in high-value regions; (2) Lease mechanisms generated marginal state revenue (peaking at 2.92 million TL in 2011), whereas easement rights (up to 49-year usage permits) emerged as a lucrative fiscal instrument, privileging short-term capital inflows over sustainable agrarian practices; (3) The 2012 legislative framework, though streamlining privatization, exacerbated socio-spatial inequalities by insufficiently addressing farmer livelihoods or production bottlenecks.

This study contributes to debates on land governance by interrogating the tension between neoliberal agrarian policies and food security imperatives. It advocates for transparent, equity-centric reforms that harmonize legal frameworks with smallholder inclusivity and ecological sustainability, offering regional insights pertinent to emerging economies navigating similar agrarian transitions.

Fernanda Lisbinski, Rodrigo Silva (p), Nicole Castro

Vítor João Pereira Domingues Martinho

In 2023, Brazil consolidated its position as the world's largest producer and one of the leading exporters of soybeans and their by-products. Understanding the labor market within the soybean and biodiesel production chain in Brazil allows for an assessment of its socioeconomic impact, employment trends, and the formulation of policies to foster income generation. This study examines the evolution of the labor market in this production chain using data from the Continuous PNAD (National Household Sample Survey) of IBGE and a methodology adapted from Barros et al. (2019) and Castro et al. (2020). The research considers both paid and unpaid Employed Population (EP), analyzing its distribution by occupational status, education level, gender, and earnings. The identification of the EP was carried out using the National Classification of Household Economic Activities (CNAE-Domiciliar 2.0), complemented by sectoral disaggregation coefficients to capture indirect sectors. To measure the evolution of EP in the inputs and agribusiness services segments, productivity series and value-added indicators were applied. This approach enabled the study to capture the specific dynamics of the labor market within this production chain. The results indicate an increase in EP, from 1.14 million in 2012 to 2.32 million in 2023, highlighting the sector’s growing importance to the Brazilian economy. The agribusiness services segment increased its EP from 793,000 to 1.6 million in the period. The primary segment (soybean production) also grew, with EP rising from 214,000 to 479,000. Real wages in the primary segment increased by 33.74%, from R$ 2,730 to R$ 3,651, reflecting the positive impacts of agricultural modernization and global demand. The study also reveals shifts in the labor force profile, with an increase in employment formalization and worker qualification. The proportion of EP with complete secondary education rose from 39.72% to 46.58%, while the share of workers with higher education increased from 17.37% to 26.26%. The findings suggest that the soybean and biodiesel production chain plays a relevant role in employment generation and the socioeconomic development of producing regions. While intensive mechanization reduced labor demand in the primary segment, it fostered the creation of more qualified jobs in the agribusiness services sector. Furthermore, economic policies, such as the mandatory blending of biodiesel with diesel and tax incentives, were essential in sustaining employment growth and stability in the production chain.

Vítor João Pereira Domingues Martinho (p)

Carlos Bacha

Unbalanced development creates injustices for some sectors of society and spaces, for which it is not easy to find solutions that can mitigate the impacts of the respective social and regional asymmetries. This is particularly worrying in the regional development, where these asymmetric developments seem to be self-reinforcing through cumulative processes, as explained in economic theory. This means that the richest spaces and contexts can become even richer and the poorest even poorer. These frameworks call for innovative approaches, notably to empower the populations living in the forgotten spaces. Some of these people have their personal and professional activities in the rural areas. Sometimes, the solutions to mitigate these spatial trends are known, however, in some circumstances, there is a lack of political interest, due to economic pressures, for example. In any case, the policy instruments and the stakeholder involvement can make relevant contributions to dealing with these challenges. With these motivations in mind, this study intends to bring more insights on identifying innovative approaches to forgotten spaces in European Union contexts. To achieve these objectives, a literature survey was carried out considering bibliographic data and systematic review approaches. The findings obtained highlight some suggestions for contributing to a more social and regional balanced development.

Acknowledgments: This work is funded by National Funds through the FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., within the scope of the project Refª UIDB/00681/2020 (https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDP/00681/2020). Furthermore we would like to thank the CERNAS Research Centre and the Polytechnic Institute of Viseu for their support.